Introduction: In KCSE 2018, a total of 660,204 candidates sat for the examination. Some 338,628 students who sat for the examination were male while 321,576 were female. In terms of percentage, the representation was 51.29% for the male and 48.71% for the female students. Candidates with special needs were 1,499 in total.

Gender distribution: In comparison to KCSE 2017, 18 counties had more female than male candidates. These counties included Kwale, Uasin Gishu, Tharaka Nithi, Kirinyaga, Nandi, Meru, Kakamega, Machakos, Elgeyo Marakwet, Laikipia, Nyandarua, Muranga, Vihiga, Taita Taveta, Makueni, Kitui, Kiambu and Kisumu (Njeru, 2018). Counties in the Norther Frontier such as Wajir and Garissa had very low numbers of female candidates who in most cases were less by half the number of male candidates (Adhiambo, 2018). Remarkably, Kiambu County had the greatest improvement in terms of female candidates. In 2017, the county had 14,070 as compared to this year’s 15,856 female candidates. Vihiga and Meru came in second and third respectively. Homa Bay County recorded the highest decline of female candidates alongside Migori.

School performance: For the second year running, Pangani Girls Secondary School produced 2018’s top student, namely Julliet Otieno, who scored an A of 87.664 points (Wanzala, 2018). Maseno school’s James Kaluna came second while Edwin Otieno Ouko of Light Academy was third. Another academic giant, Moi High School Kabarak produced the fourth best candidate, Ian Duncan Mwangi. Humphrey Rasugu, also from Maseno was fifth.

After an introduction of examination reforms, 2018 unlike previous years has seen a resurgence of traditional top performing schools. These include Alliance High School, Moi High School Kabarak, Maseno and Mang’u High School. Strathmore school was the top school nationally followed by Alliance High School and Alliance Girls High School. 

Students’ Performance: The number of candidates who scored A was 315 and C+ which is the minimum grade for university qualification was 90,377. 3,417 candidates scored A-, 8,268 B+ and 16,403 B plain (Oduor, 2018). Another 26,156 could manage B- 35,818 attaining C+. In the languages (English and Kiswahili), girls performed better. Similarly, they outperformed boys in CRE, Art and Design, Metalwork and Home Science (Adhiambo, 2018). Of the 1,499 candidates with special needs, 3 scored A-, 6 B+, 8 B, 35 B- and 36 C+. In general, 88 candidates with special needs met the minimum university requirement of grade C+.

Further analysis shows that candidates with low KCPE marks four years earlier scoring high grades in KCSE. James Kamau’s score at KCPE was 186 but attained B- of 40.31 points. In this category, Josephat Mwangi is the best having scored A- in KCSE in comparison to 278 marks at KCPE level. Kyulu Richard is second with a B+ and 257 marks in his KCPE. Also scoring a B+ and in third position is George Mburu who scored 279 in KCPE. 

Conclusion: In comparison to 2017, the number of candidates in 2018 increased. Female candidates were more than boys in almost half the counties. Additionally, they female students had better performance than boys in seven subjects which indicate a step towards improving gender parity in Kenya. 2018 also saw the resurgence of old academic giants such as Strathmore School, Moi High school Kabarak among others.

Sources

Njeru, B. (2018, December 21). Juliet Otieno from Pangani Girls is the best candidate in the 2018 KCSE exam. Retrieved from: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001307066/juliet-otieno-is-this-year-s-top-kcse-candidate

Wanzala, O. (2018, December 22). Pangani produces the best candidate for the second year running. Retrieved from:  https://www.nation.co.ke/news/education/Pangani-produces-best-candidate-for-the-second-year-running/2643604-4906102-vwkgi8z/index.html

KCSE results 2018: sleeping giants bounce back (2018, December 22). Retrieved from: http://www.mediamaxnetwork.co.ke/494215/kcse-results-2018-sleeping-giants-bounce-back/

Adhiambo, M. (2018, December 22). Girls perform better in metal work and male dominated subjects. Retrieved from: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001307115/girls-perform-better-in-2018-kcse

Oduor, A. (2018, December 22). Pangani and Alliance top in Nairobi as girls beat boys. Retrieved from: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001307109/pangani-and-alliance-top-in-nairobi-as-girls-beat-boys

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Defense mechanisms constitute unconscious psychological strategies that are brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image (Vaillant, 1977). In a school set up, when students do strange things, teachers should work with them to find if there are other places from which they are displacing their energy. This should be followed by dealing with the real reason, not the displaced reason. Students (teachers too) may use various forms of defense mechanisms. These include denial, displacement, rationalization, projection, regression, repression among others. This article examines how teachers should deal with the students’ defense mechanisms.

Giving ‘space’ to students

Students may try to treat emotionally difficult situations in cold and illogical ways simply because they are unable to handle the emotion at that time. Teachers may decide to give them space at the moment so that they can maintain their dignity, although they may also decide to challenge them in a more appropriate time and setting. This is mainly because when one tries to challenge a student who is intellectualizing or rationalizing, they may fight back or switch to other forms of defense mechanisms which may result to harm in a classroom setup.

Watching against rationalization

Both teachers and learners should learn how to watch their own rationalizations. If one can be honest with themselves and with other people, they can gain esteem for their courage and integrity. In persuasion, teachers should offer learners with logical reasons that people can use to rationalize their compliance with their arguments. Sometimes people disagree simply because they do not want to agree with you, such as with students and teachers, teenagers and parents or perhaps do not like to feel persuaded. Thus students should be given reasons to focus on the substance rather than the persuader.

Dealing with regressive symptoms

If the student is showing regressive symptoms, the teacher can respond to their child state in several ways, including taking a parent position of authority (nurturing or controlling) or join them in their child place (thus building alignment).

Compliance

Teachers should concentrate more on helping those students who tend to cause problems to themselves and others instead of punishing them. They should make them to be aware of the boundary activities where sublimated energy may switch back into unwanted or anti-social actions or other, less positive coping mechanisms.

Examining students’ repressions

When a student is being defensive in some way, teachers should think about the repressions that may be at the root of their problem. They should also listen for speech errors and other signals from the subconscious. They can even start a conversation about recent weird dreams and then listen for further symbols, though one should be cautious with this, since dreams can be very symbolic. Teachers should help a student to recover from the discomfort and dysfunction that repression brings by digging out the original memory. If one has caused another to have stress and they feel unable to respond, one may find that they act as if nothing had taken place. This is a rather common characteristic of persuasive conditions.

Conclusion

Dealing with defense mechanisms in a classroom situation can be tricky since it does not only involve students but teachers too. Although teachers have a wider responsibility in dealing with students’ defense mechanisms, they can also be victims of the same. Therefore, high level of maturity is required from the teachers in order to adequately deal with the students’ defense mechanisms.

Reference

Vaillant, G.E. (1977). Adaptation to life. Boston: Little, Brown.

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Inclusive education is about the integration approach of the disabled learners in schools. It is under this inclusion model that learners with special needs spend most or all of their time with non-disabled learners. While inclusive education has its benefits, there are enormous challenges hindering its effective implementation especially in developing countries. This article briefly examines the following: Inadequate Educational Facilities, Poor Teacher Training, Poor policy implementation.

Inadequate Educational Facilities

In most of the schools especially in developing countries, there are no adequate educational facilities. These range from lack of adequate reading materials, to desks, classrooms among others. Inclusive education has led to an increased number of learners in the learning institutions. This leads to a decrement in the available resources in the schools. According to as study conducted by Oakes and Saunders (2002), shortages of teaching and learning materials has a negative impact on the learners especially the disabled ones with less knowledge about a subject. This forces most of the parents to remove their children from the schools and take them to special schools.

Lack of adequate resources to meet the educational needs of the disabled learners in the regular schools cause most of the parents to have doubt as to whether the needs of their children are adequately met in these schools. Thus, most parents prefer to take their children to the special schools as compared to the inclusive schools. This affects negatively the success of inclusive education.

Additionally, many schools in the developing countries are characterized by inadequacies in basic facilities such as properly ventilated classroom, furniture suitable for the disabled and non-disabled learners, kitchen, safe clean water, playground, toilets and play material among others (IAEYC, 1991). This limits the enrollment of the disabled learners in the regular schools hence affecting the success of inclusive education.

Poor Teacher Training

Teacher’s training is equally important in the teaching and learning process. Most of the teachers do not have adequate training on handling both the disabled and non-disabled learners in one class. This affects the understanding of some of the learners of which it is reflected in their performance. Continued poor performance among the disabled learners due to the poor teaching skills and abilities of the teachers triggers their poor enrollment in the regular schools. Angrist and Lavy (2001) observe that lack of adequate and proper training received by teachers lead to a reduction in their pupils’ test scores. Thus, lack of adequate teacher training to handle both the disabled and non-disabled learners in the same class negatively affects the success of inclusive education.

Poor inclusive education policy implementation

There is no adequate support for inclusive education from the concerned stakeholders. In most of developing countries, most of the parents of the disabled learners are cautious about placing their children in an inclusion program because of fears that the children will be ridiculed by other children, or be unable to develop regular life skills in an academic classroom. This is mainly attributed to poor policy implementation. Many governments in the developing countries have not been able to effectively implement inclusive education policy framework. In some countries like Kenya, the education policy is an exclusively one-sided policy and fails to meet the needs of the challenged learners in inclusive education arrangement. One case in point is the endlessly controversial national exam, which fails to capture learners’ diverse backgrounds and needs (Sugiharto, 2008).

Conclusion

Inclusive education in most of the developing countries still remains in the realm of theory and far from practice; it is still grappling with problems of policy implementation, an environment that is not conducive for practice. The success of inclusive education is hindered by other factors like community’s attitude towards disability, lack of adequate involvement of all stakeholders among others. As such, more still needs to be done in order to ensure that the best is achieved from the objectives of inclusive education.

References

Angrist, J. D., & Lavy, V. (2001). Does Teacher Training Affect Pupil Learning? Evidence from Comparisons in Jerusalem Public Schools. Journal of Labor Economics, 19(2), 343-369.

IAEYC (1991). Accreditation Criteria and Procedures of the NationalAcademy of Early Childhood Program. Washington, DC: International Association for the Education of Young Children (IAEYC)

Oakes, J. & Saunders, M. (2002). Access to Textbooks, Instructional Materials, Equipment, and Technology: Inadequacy and Inequality in California’s Public Schools. Los Angeles: UCLA’s Institute for Democracy, Education, and Access.

Sugiharto, S. (2008). Challenges in implementing inclusive education. Available online at http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/06/07/challenges-implementing-inclusive-education.html

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
There are a number of ways parents can participate in providing the educational needs of Children Living With Disabilities (CLWD). Parents can participate through meeting educational costs, providing health care and safe environment and monitoring learning progress.

Learners with Disabilities Educational Costs 

Meeting educational costs is another key component under parents’ domain of responsibilities. Tuition, maintenance, stationary, remunerations for the teachers, feeding programs, learning materials, and special equipment are key requirements in teaching and learning process. Parents are called upon to provide the basic needs that children with special needs may require in the learning process. Children with visual impairment for instance require certain facilities like braille, embossed map and touch sign. Children with physical impairment on the other hand need physical facilities such as wheelchairs, clutches and tailor made toilet to fit their physical condition. Catering for these needs may pose a greater challenge to CLWD from poor backgrounds. These children may be affected in terms of their enrolment in school, retention and school completion.

Safe and healthy school environment

It is the duty of the parents to provide safe and healthy environment for optimal growth and development of CLWD. According to the extent of child’s disability, parents or guardians can take appropriate interventions to meet the health needs of the disabled child. It is more of importance if a parent gets to understand the special health needs of his/her disabled child. Parents should try to give quality time to special need children, for their healthy emotional development (Sigh, 2009). Parents have sole responsibility to help children with disabilities to grow in a better environment by understanding and maintaining their special health and academic needs and helping them to become active participants in classroom for effective learning. In a school set up, provision of safe and healthy environment for a parent implies meeting medication needs, and providing devices needed for effective learning.

Monitoring Learning Progress

Parents have a duty also to monitor their children’s learning progress, much so, those who are challenged. In cases where there is no good progress, parents are obliged to discuss the arising matters with the teacher(s). They have a duty to initiate changes in their children’s educational program. Participation is a very vital part of a child’s development enabling them to understand societal expectation and acquire the physical and social competencies needed to succeed in school and even the community.

There are various stakeholders in child’s development process. Parents are among the major stakeholders in the life of a child’s integral development. As such, their role remain crucial, and much so in the life of a child whose abilities are challenged.

References

Sigh, R. (2009). Special Health Needs of Disabled. Available online at www.brighthub.com/education/special/articles/19519.aspx

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Reading is a complex task that requires coordination of various faculties. It requires not only coordination of eyes but also visual memory which helps in retaining the meaning of letters and words. Teachers and parents have a crucial role to play in helping young readers with reading difficulties. This article briefly explores a number of ways on how to help children with reading difficulties.

Selecting Appropriate Reading Materials and Reading Technique

Reading materials should be written according to the level of learners. Slower learners are much more comfortable with materials that are within their level. The reading level is of primary concern; however parents and teachers can help children with reading difficulties to select helpful materials according to their preference.

Teachers and parents should choose stories or books with a reduced number of words that are not difficulty to read, with short paragraphs that convey the message; books that have meaningful flow of ideas and helpful illustrations that create mental pictures. Newspapers are also good for older readers who have some basic reading skills. They are good for improving reading comprehension (Monda, et al., 1988).

Structural technique – This is a technique which some instructors use to help in speeding reading. The technique is referred to as Phrase Reading (Klaeser, 1977). The technique is used with learners with reading difficulties to increase the speed of reading.

Improving Reader Attitude

There are various factors that influence children’s attitudes towards reading: children’s personal encounters in reading, confidence level, and teachers’ or parents’ attitudes towards child’s reading. There are a number of ways on how a teacher or parent can cultivate a positive attitude towards reading among children. Teachers and parents should avoid labeling children. Tutors who have worked consistently with learners with reading difficulties are very aware of the role of the self in self-motivation. The child’s sense of self-worth can greatly be damaged by labeling. The caregivers should therefore appreciate children’s thinking as the basis of their reading ability. They should also maintain some flexibility in their expectations regarding their children’s development in mastering reading skills. Children need to be made aware of their own reading ability. This has potentials of creating positive self image and reading confidence (Webb, 1992). The footnote in improving child’s attitude is simply appreciation; to feel loved.

Allocating more time to reading lessons

Allocating more time to reading lessons is an important strategy towards improving reading among readers. Teachers and caregivers should take interest in monitoring child’s reading progress.

There are a number of strategies that have been reported to help readers with reading difficulties. These include reading in phrases, skipping words that are not essential, and continuing to read the text even after encountering difficulty words (Wallace, 2001). Training reading is also an important strategy. According to Devine, (1993) training enhances the meta-cognitive knowledge base of readers and results in improved reading performance.

Another reading strategy is the ability to make informed predictions as the student progresses through the text (Wallace, 2001). By making these predictions, the learner takes an interactive role in the reading process. According to Blanton (1994), making predictions while reading form the basis of literacy, formal learning and academic achievement.

Allotting learners more time to private reading practice

Extra time allotted to reading can be spent in libraries or to other home/private based printed materials that the learners are exposed in their own environment. The notion of private reading practice for improving reading is very important since it enhances the fluency skills taught by the tutors. Some children allocate more time to reading out of the school hours than others. The factor of private extra time for reading is regarded as a great influence on the fluency of readers and a wide exposure to various texts.

Allotting more private time to reading by learners exposes them to a wide variety of literary environment in which they can perfect their art of reading. It has been noted that the slower a pupil reads a given passage, the lower his/her level of understanding; the fast one reads, the higher the levels of conceptualizing. It is worth noting that while teachers have been keen on the need for learners to allot more time to reading texts out of the school hours, it should also be pointed out that most of the recommended textbooks for teaching may not be necessarily captivating for young readers. As such, learners should be encouraged to interact with various reading materials besides the normal school books. They can be given freedom to choose their reading materials with parental guidance.

Visual image based texts

Use of visual image based texts is one effective strategy for slower readers to generate visual images of what is being read (Carver, 1990). For the reader to create mental pictures, he or she must first be in position to able to make out the word. Assuming the reader knows how to identify words, he or she needs concepts to envision the flow of action portrayed on the page.

The concept building techniques apply both to average and the readers who are slower. The slower reader however, gains more from concrete experiences and images than from abstract debate. Parents and teachers should make extra effort not only in guiding the slower reader in visualizing images but also describing the images that occur in his or her own mind as he or she reads a certain passage. This is meant to give the child a concrete sense of what visual imagery implies. Images, physical actions, experimental displays are only a few of the ways that teachers, parents and caregivers can make the key vocabulary take root within the reader’s mind.

There are various other ways or approaches that parents, teachers and caregivers can take to help children with reading difficulties. Medical interventions, counseling are among other approaches that could be taken. These are vital in unpacking some of the hidden, unresolved issues within a child that could be the root cause of the reading difficulties.

References

Blanton, L. (1994). Discourse, artifacts, and the Ozarks: understanding academic literacy. In Zamel, & Spack, pp. 219-235.

Carver, R. P. (1990). Reading rate: a review of research and theory. San Diego, California: Academic Press, Inc.

Devine, J. (1993). The role of metacognition in second language reading and writing. In J. Carson and I. Leki (Eds.), Reading in the Composition Classroom: Second Language Perspectives (pp. 105-127). Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Klaeser, B. M. (1977). Reading improvement: a complete course for increasing speed and comprehension.Chicago: Nelson-Hall Inc., Publishers.

Monda, L. E., et al. (1988). Use the News: Newspapers and LD Students, Journal of Reading, 31(7), 678-79.

Wallace, C. (1992). Reading. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Webb, G.M. (1992). Needless Battles on Dyslexia. Education Week.

School networks are one of the most important innovations in the modern era of education. They have boosted achievement and graduation rates and expanded quality options in communities that most need them. This article examines the internet installation in schools with reference to Kenya. Internet is a globally connected network system that uses internet protocol (IP) to transmit data via various types of media. Internet is a network of global exchanges including private, public, business, academic and government networks connected by guided, wireless and fiber-optic technologies.

Safaricom is a leading Internet Service provider in Kenya. Safaricom fiber was launched in Nairobi in 2015 and continues to expand its customer base across Kenya. Safaricom provides reliable and fast internet service can be accessible via wireless technology or digital subscriber line. It delivers consumers radically lower priced, high quality Internet.​ Safaricom Fiber also allows you to have fast, reliable and unlimited internet access from the comfort of your home. Safaricom Home Fiber is a service that allows you to have fast, reliable and unlimited internet access not only in homes, but also in schools.

In 2014, KENET launched the Schools Connectivity Initiative (SCI) to coordinate the various commercial, educational and government organizations that were interested and willing to provide Internet access and promote the use of ICT in Kenyan schools. The general objective of SCI is to improve the quality of education by transforming teaching, learning and administration of schools in Kenya by leveraging ICTs. The challenge has always been the cost of equipping educational institutions with ICT and providing affordable Internet access, particularly for the large number of schools in the country. For example, Kenya had a total 8,747 secondary schools and 29,460 primary schools in 2014 according Economic Survey 2015. The secondary schools had a total enrolment of 2.3 million students in the year 2014. The cost of providing Internet access to all the schools in Kenya would therefore be very high and it is unlikely any one operator could provide it. The SCI intends to create a platform through which public and private sectors could partner in an effort to provide scalable and sustainable ICT and Internet access to schools.

Internet is a resource which can serve as a platform for information retrieval among students. It can be used to  respond to students and other people questions in real time. This therefore makes Internet important in effective teaching and learning process in schools.

Internet has been crucial in the evolution of our education system in various ways. Teachers can use the internet as a modern tool for education. Stakeholders in Education should provide the infrastructure that teachers and students can use to get benefits of technology in education.

Internet is also used by teachers and pupils in examining the links between public subsides, in classrooms and in educational performance.

The development of Internet technologies has raised the education level in all countries and it has changed the way students are being taught in schools. This is why it is very important for the stakeholders in education to have a framework for provision of internet in learning institutions.

For more information about installing Internet in schools, kindly contact SNK/Marxtech Team via 0202319748.

To have a direct link with the Lead Internet Provider Team, you may visit:

Marxtech Digital Solutions

This post concerns KCPE 2018 Past Revision Papers which are meant to support class 8 candidates to prepare for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education. The past papers consist of questions and answers. The papers are compiled and distributed online by Schools Net Kenya as extracted from KNEC 2018 with an aim of making teaching and learning resources easily accessible to both teachers and learners.

Schools Net Kenya provide Questions Papers and Answers. For compilation and distribution online, we change a small fee of KES 100/ for the entire set of 5 subjects. We thank you  for your continued support in what we do to share teaching and learning resources for acquisition of knowledge.

Click to place an ORDER of the following KCPE 2018 Past  Revision Papers:

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Click ORDER to request a set of KCPE 2018 Past Papers. Kindly note that we charge KES. 100/= only for compilation and online distribution of the papers. This helps to to meet our administrative and e-resource provision costs. Thank you for your continued support in what we do for knowledge development.

Due to many criticism that faced the 8-4-4 system which was first established in Kenya in 1985, the government proposed a new curriculum called Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) – first launched in 2017. The system is also known as 2-6-6-3 system. The system places more emphasis on learners’ mental ability to process issues and proposes a practical framework that nurtures competencies of learners based on their passions and talents. Books have been written following the Competency Based Curriculum.

The following is a list of some of the approved books for grades 1, 2 and 3.

Grade 1 CBC Books

Grade 2 CBC Books

Grade 3 CBC Books

School Administrators, Teachers, Parents, Guardians and Pupils are encouraged to acquire the approved books to enhance teaching and learning process.

To get hard copies of any of the recommended CBC books for Grade1, 2 and 3, kindly contact SNK/SSR team via Tel. 0202319748 or send an email to infosnkenya@gmail.com

Today, more than ever before, personal and property security has become central and constitute a major component of best institutional management practices. Schools, much more than other corporate institutions need robust security systems to ensure both infrastructural and human resource safety. Thus, CCTV installation should be a fundamental component within a school infrastructure since it can enhance effective teaching and learning. This article briefly highlights the benefits of CCTV systems in schools.

Benefits of CCTV System in Schools

Whilst the introduction of any surveillance systems into an environment with children can be quite an emotive subject, those schools that have CCTV system experience more benefits than the alluded fears. The main benefits of CCTV system installation in schools are briefly discussed.

Improved educational performance: many school administrators have found that the introduction of CCTV into their schools has led to a measurable improvement in teachers preparedness, student’s discipline and hence productivity resulting in significant improvements in both curriculum and co-curriculum performance.

Productivity: with the installation of CCTV issues of punctuality, time management or productivity will be managed at the comfort of your desk.

Increased staff professionalism: CCTV has proved to be an excellent training tool. Reviewing footage of a lesson can allow teachers to look at their performance more objectively and consider ways of improving their lessons. Many teachers have stated that they have learnt a great deal from reviewing their own performance and that it can be very useful to ask other teachers how they would have handled a particular classroom situation.

Increased deterrent: CCTV systems are a great deterrent. Schools using CCTV state that after installation, incidents of poor and antisocial behavior like bullying drop dramatically in schools.

Great feeling of security: knowing you are well protected gives a feeling of security to students and teachers alike and can be very effective in helping to eliminate bullying.

Staff protection: CCTV is perfect for preventing assaults and false claims of misconduct. It can also be a very important tool when teachers and parents differ about the behavior of their children.

Increased detection: in cases of crime, vandalism and staff theft, there will be a strong chance of detection and identification of the perpetrators with more ease.

Conclusion

From the highlighted benefits of CCTV systems, it is evident that any forward thinking institution should consider installing the systems to enhance effective teaching and learning.

For more information about installing CCTVs in schools, kindly contact SNK/Marxtech Team via 0202319748.

To have a direct link with CCTV Technical Team, kindly visit:

Marxtech Digital Solutions

There are KCPE Replica Papers which are prepared with an aim of helping KCPE candidates to prepare for the examinations based on the key areas of difficulties. A new report has pointed out key areas where Kenya Certificate of Primary Education candidates perform poorly and need improvement. Replica papers have been prepared in order to replicate or model a typical KCPE examinations. Replica papers also cover the main areas where students perform poorly in KCPE exams.

Click to Download FREE KCPE Replica Papers:

Under KCPE Revision Series, you may also order the following papers:

1. KCPE 2018 TRIAL Examination for Class 8
2. KCPE 2018 PREDICTION Revision Papers
3. KCPE 2018 SOLUTION Revision Papers
4. KCPE 2018 TRACER Revision Papers

Click to ORDER KCPE Replica 2018 Answers. The Answer Sheet will be sent to your email address. Answers are available at a small fee of KES 100/. Thank you for seeking our services!

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
According to KICD internal evaluation report, the implementation of Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) faced a number of challenges. This article provides an overview of the challenges and the way forward.

The KICD report indicated that key among the challenges facing CBC implementation was the issue of teaching and learning resources. While a number of private schools had the resources, there was a near total lack in public schools, a circumstance that compromises the implementation of the curriculum.

Another challenge is the issue of teacher knowledge of CBC pedagogy. While teachers had understood CBC pedagogy, a good number of them were struggling with the concept and lacked the capacity demanded by the Curriculum.

The report also raised concerns over lack of collaboration among different government agencies.

Way Forward

In order to triangulate the findings with that of KICD’s internal evaluation, the Ministry of Education sought the services of external evaluators. External evaluation results appeared to have confirmed KICD’s findings about CBC.

Based on the reports, it is therefore evident, as indicated by the Ministry of Education CS Amina Mohammed, that the new Competency Based Curriculum should be suspended. Thus, the future of CBC is on hold till further consultations are made through joined forum. This is an indication that the new system of education, namely 2-6-3-3-3 continues to hang on the balance. This path leads us back to our old condemned system of education, 8-4-4. What a retreat!

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Introduction: In KCSE 2018, a total of 660,204 candidates sat for the examination. Some 338,628 students who sat for the examination were male while 321,576 were female. In terms of percentage, the representation was 51.29% for the male and 48.71% for the female students. Candidates with special needs were 1,499 in total.

Gender distribution: In comparison to KCSE 2017, 18 counties had more female than male candidates. These counties included Kwale, Uasin Gishu, Tharaka Nithi, Kirinyaga, Nandi, Meru, Kakamega, Machakos, Elgeyo Marakwet, Laikipia, Nyandarua, Muranga, Vihiga, Taita Taveta, Makueni, Kitui, Kiambu and Kisumu (Njeru, 2018). Counties in the Norther Frontier such as Wajir and Garissa had very low numbers of female candidates who in most cases were less by half the number of male candidates (Adhiambo, 2018). Remarkably, Kiambu County had the greatest improvement in terms of female candidates. In 2017, the county had 14,070 as compared to this year’s 15,856 female candidates. Vihiga and Meru came in second and third respectively. Homa Bay County recorded the highest decline of female candidates alongside Migori.

School performance: For the second year running, Pangani Girls Secondary School produced 2018’s top student, namely Julliet Otieno, who scored an A of 87.664 points (Wanzala, 2018). Maseno school’s James Kaluna came second while Edwin Otieno Ouko of Light Academy was third. Another academic giant, Moi High School Kabarak produced the fourth best candidate, Ian Duncan Mwangi. Humphrey Rasugu, also from Maseno was fifth.

After an introduction of examination reforms, 2018 unlike previous years has seen a resurgence of traditional top performing schools. These include Alliance High School, Moi High School Kabarak, Maseno and Mang’u High School. Strathmore school was the top school nationally followed by Alliance High School and Alliance Girls High School. 

Students’ Performance: The number of candidates who scored A was 315 and C+ which is the minimum grade for university qualification was 90,377. 3,417 candidates scored A-, 8,268 B+ and 16,403 B plain (Oduor, 2018). Another 26,156 could manage B- 35,818 attaining C+. In the languages (English and Kiswahili), girls performed better. Similarly, they outperformed boys in CRE, Art and Design, Metalwork and Home Science (Adhiambo, 2018). Of the 1,499 candidates with special needs, 3 scored A-, 6 B+, 8 B, 35 B- and 36 C+. In general, 88 candidates with special needs met the minimum university requirement of grade C+.

Further analysis shows that candidates with low KCPE marks four years earlier scoring high grades in KCSE. James Kamau’s score at KCPE was 186 but attained B- of 40.31 points. In this category, Josephat Mwangi is the best having scored A- in KCSE in comparison to 278 marks at KCPE level. Kyulu Richard is second with a B+ and 257 marks in his KCPE. Also scoring a B+ and in third position is George Mburu who scored 279 in KCPE. 

Conclusion: In comparison to 2017, the number of candidates in 2018 increased. Female candidates were more than boys in almost half the counties. Additionally, they female students had better performance than boys in seven subjects which indicate a step towards improving gender parity in Kenya. 2018 also saw the resurgence of old academic giants such as Strathmore School, Moi High school Kabarak among others.

Sources

Njeru, B. (2018, December 21). Juliet Otieno from Pangani Girls is the best candidate in the 2018 KCSE exam. Retrieved from: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001307066/juliet-otieno-is-this-year-s-top-kcse-candidate

Wanzala, O. (2018, December 22). Pangani produces the best candidate for the second year running. Retrieved from: https://www.nation.co.ke/news/education/Pangani-produces-best-candidate-for-the-second-year-running/2643604-4906102-vwkgi8z/index.html

KCSE results 2018: sleeping giants bounce back (2018, December 22). Retrieved from: http://www.mediamaxnetwork.co.ke/494215/kcse-results-2018-sleeping-giants-bounce-back/

Adhiambo, M. (2018, December 22). Girls perform better in metal work and male dominated subjects. Retrieved from: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001307115/girls-perform-better-in-2018-kcse

Oduor, A. (2018, December 22). Pangani and Alliance top in Nairobi as girls beat boys. Retrieved from: https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001307109/pangani-and-alliance-top-in-nairobi-as-girls-beat-boys

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Defense mechanisms constitute unconscious psychological strategies that are brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image (Vaillant, 1977). In a school set up, when students do strange things, teachers should work with them to find if there are other places from which they are displacing their energy. This should be followed by dealing with the real reason, not the displaced reason. Students (teachers too) may use various forms of defense mechanisms. These include denial, displacement, rationalization, projection, regression, repression among others. This article examines how teachers should deal with the students’ defense mechanisms.

Giving ‘space’ to students

Students may try to treat emotionally difficult situations in cold and illogical ways simply because they are unable to handle the emotion at that time. Teachers may decide to give them space at the moment so that they can maintain their dignity, although they may also decide to challenge them in a more appropriate time and setting. This is mainly because when one tries to challenge a student who is intellectualizing or rationalizing, they may fight back or switch to other forms of defense mechanisms which may result to harm in a classroom setup.

Watching against rationalization

Both teachers and learners should learn how to watch their own rationalizations. If one can be honest with themselves and with other people, they can gain esteem for their courage and integrity. In persuasion, teachers should offer learners with logical reasons that people can use to rationalize their compliance with their arguments. Sometimes people disagree simply because they do not want to agree with you, such as with students and teachers, teenagers and parents or perhaps do not like to feel persuaded. Thus students should be given reasons to focus on the substance rather than the persuader.

Dealing with regressive symptoms

If the student is showing regressive symptoms, the teacher can respond to their child state in several ways, including taking a parent position of authority (nurturing or controlling) or join them in their child place (thus building alignment).

Compliance

Teachers should concentrate more on helping those students who tend to cause problems to themselves and others instead of punishing them. They should make them to be aware of the boundary activities where sublimated energy may switch back into unwanted or anti-social actions or other, less positive coping mechanisms.

Examining students’ repressions

When a student is being defensive in some way, teachers should think about the repressions that may be at the root of their problem. They should also listen for speech errors and other signals from the subconscious. They can even start a conversation about recent weird dreams and then listen for further symbols, though one should be cautious with this, since dreams can be very symbolic. Teachers should help a student to recover from the discomfort and dysfunction that repression brings by digging out the original memory. If one has caused another to have stress and they feel unable to respond, one may find that they act as if nothing had taken place. This is a rather common characteristic of persuasive conditions.

Conclusion

Dealing with defense mechanisms in a classroom situation can be tricky since it does not only involve students but teachers too. Although teachers have a wider responsibility in dealing with students’ defense mechanisms, they can also be victims of the same. Therefore, high level of maturity is required from the teachers in order to adequately deal with the students’ defense mechanisms.

Reference

Vaillant, G.E. (1977). Adaptation to life. Boston: Little, Brown.

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Inclusive education is about the integration approach of the disabled learners in schools. It is under this inclusion model that learners with special needs spend most or all of their time with non-disabled learners. While inclusive education has its benefits, there are enormous challenges hindering its effective implementation especially in developing countries. This article briefly examines the following: Inadequate Educational Facilities, Poor Teacher Training, Poor policy implementation.

Inadequate Educational Facilities
In most of the schools especially in developing countries, there are no adequate educational facilities. These range from lack of adequate reading materials, to desks, classrooms among others. Inclusive education has led to an increased number of learners in the learning institutions. This leads to a decrement in the available resources in the schools. According to as study conducted by Oakes and Saunders (2002), shortages of teaching and learning materials has a negative impact on the learners especially the disabled ones with less knowledge about a subject. This forces most of the parents to remove their children from the schools and take them to special schools.

Lack of adequate resources to meet the educational needs of the disabled learners in the regular schools cause most of the parents to have doubt as to whether the needs of their children are adequately met in these schools. Thus, most parents prefer to take their children to the special schools as compared to the inclusive schools. This affects negatively the success of inclusive education.

Additionally, many schools in the developing countries are characterized by inadequacies in basic facilities such as properly ventilated classroom, furniture suitable for the disabled and non-disabled learners, kitchen, safe clean water, playground, toilets and play material among others (IAEYC, 1991). This limits the enrollment of the disabled learners in the regular schools hence affecting the success of inclusive education.

Poor Teacher Training
Teacher’s training is equally important in the teaching and learning process. Most of the teachers do not have adequate training on handling both the disabled and non-disabled learners in one class. This affects the understanding of some of the learners of which it is reflected in their performance. Continued poor performance among the disabled learners due to the poor teaching skills and abilities of the teachers triggers their poor enrollment in the regular schools. Angrist and Lavy (2001) observe that lack of adequate and proper training received by teachers lead to a reduction in their pupils’ test scores. Thus, lack of adequate teacher training to handle both the disabled and non-disabled learners in the same class negatively affects the success of inclusive education.

Poor inclusive education policy implementation
There is no adequate support for inclusive education from the concerned stakeholders. In most of developing countries, most of the parents of the disabled learners are cautious about placing their children in an inclusion program because of fears that the children will be ridiculed by other children, or be unable to develop regular life skills in an academic classroom. This is mainly attributed to poor policy implementation. Many governments in the developing countries have not been able to effectively implement inclusive education policy framework. In some countries like Kenya, the education policy is an exclusively one-sided policy and fails to meet the needs of the challenged learners in inclusive education arrangement. One case in point is the endlessly controversial national exam, which fails to capture learners’ diverse backgrounds and needs (Sugiharto, 2008).

Conclusion
Inclusive education in most of the developing countries still remains in the realm of theory and far from practice; it is still grappling with problems of policy implementation, an environment that is not conducive for practice. The success of inclusive education is hindered by other factors like community’s attitude towards disability, lack of adequate involvement of all stakeholders among others. As such, more still needs to be done in order to ensure that the best is achieved from the objectives of inclusive education.

References
Angrist, J. D., & Lavy, V. (2001). Does Teacher Training Affect Pupil Learning? Evidence from Comparisons in Jerusalem Public Schools. Journal of Labor Economics, 19(2), 343-369.

IAEYC (1991). Accreditation Criteria and Procedures of the NationalAcademy of Early Childhood Program. Washington, DC: International Association for the Education of Young Children (IAEYC)

Oakes, J. & Saunders, M. (2002). Access to Textbooks, Instructional Materials, Equipment, and Technology: Inadequacy and Inequality in California’s Public Schools. Los Angeles: UCLA’s Institute for Democracy, Education, and Access.

Sugiharto, S. (2008). Challenges in implementing inclusive education. Available online at http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/06/07/challenges-implementing-inclusive-education.html

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
There are a number of ways parents can participate in providing the educational needs of Children Living With Disabilities (CLWD). Parents can participate through meeting educational costs, providing health care and safe environment and monitoring learning progress.

Learners with Disabilities Educational Costs 
Meeting educational costs is another key component under parents’ domain of responsibilities. Tuition, maintenance, stationary, remunerations for the teachers, feeding programs, learning materials, and special equipment are key requirements in teaching and learning process. Parents are called upon to provide the basic needs that children with special needs may require in the learning process. Children with visual impairment for instance require certain facilities like braille, embossed map and touch sign. Children with physical impairment on the other hand need physical facilities such as wheelchairs, clutches and tailor made toilet to fit their physical condition. Catering for these needs may pose a greater challenge to CLWD from poor backgrounds. These children may be affected in terms of their enrolment in school, retention and school completion.

Safe and healthy school environment
It is the duty of the parents to provide safe and healthy environment for optimal growth and development of CLWD. According to the extent of child’s disability, parents or guardians can take appropriate interventions to meet the health needs of the disabled child. It is more of importance if a parent gets to understand the special health needs of his/her disabled child. Parents should try to give quality time to special need children, for their healthy emotional development (Sigh, 2009). Parents have sole responsibility to help children with disabilities to grow in a better environment by understanding and maintaining their special health and academic needs and helping them to become active participants in classroom for effective learning. In a school set up, provision of safe and healthy environment for a parent implies meeting medication needs, and providing devices needed for effective learning.

Monitoring Learning Progress
Parents have a duty also to monitor their children’s learning progress, much so, those who are challenged. In cases where there is no good progress, parents are obliged to discuss the arising matters with the teacher(s). They have a duty to initiate changes in their children’s educational program. Participation is a very vital part of a child’s development enabling them to understand societal expectation and acquire the physical and social competencies needed to succeed in school and even the community.

There are various stakeholders in child’s development process. Parents are among the major stakeholders in the life of a child’s integral development. As such, their role remain crucial, and much so in the life of a child whose abilities are challenged.

References
Sigh, R. (2009). Special Health Needs of Disabled. Available online at http://www.brighthub.com/education/special/articles/19519.aspx

Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Reading is a complex task that requires coordination of various faculties. It requires not only coordination of eyes but also visual memory which helps in retaining the meaning of letters and words. Teachers and parents have a crucial role to play in helping young readers with reading difficulties. This article briefly explores a number of ways on how to help children with reading difficulties.

Selecting Appropriate Reading Materials and Reading Technique

Reading materials should be written according to the level of learners. Slower learners are much more comfortable with materials that are within their level. The reading level is of primary concern; however parents and teachers can help children with reading difficulties to select helpful materials according to their preference.

Teachers and parents should choose stories or books with a reduced number of words that are not difficulty to read, with short paragraphs that convey the message; books that have meaningful flow of ideas and helpful illustrations that create mental pictures. Newspapers are also good for older readers who have some basic reading skills. They are good for improving reading comprehension (Monda, et al., 1988).

Structural technique – This is a technique which some instructors use to help in speeding reading. The technique is referred to as Phrase Reading (Klaeser, 1977). The technique is used with learners with reading difficulties to increase the speed of reading.

Improving Reader Attitude

There are various factors that influence children’s attitudes towards reading: children’s personal encounters in reading, confidence level, and teachers’ or parents’ attitudes towards child’s reading. There are a number of ways on how a teacher or parent can cultivate a positive attitude towards reading among children. Teachers and parents should avoid labeling children. Tutors who have worked consistently with learners with reading difficulties are very aware of the role of the self in self-motivation. The child’s sense of self-worth can greatly be damaged by labeling. The caregivers should therefore appreciate children’s thinking as the basis of their reading ability. They should also maintain some flexibility in their expectations regarding their children’s development in mastering reading skills. Children need to be made aware of their own reading ability. This has potentials of creating positive self image and reading confidence (Webb, 1992). The footnote in improving child’s attitude is simply appreciation; to feel loved.

Allocating more time to reading lessons

Allocating more time to reading lessons is an important strategy towards improving reading among readers. Teachers and caregivers should take interest in monitoring child’s reading progress.

There are a number of strategies that have been reported to help readers with reading difficulties. These include reading in phrases, skipping words that are not essential, and continuing to read the text even after encountering difficulty words (Wallace, 2001). Training reading is also an important strategy. According to Devine, (1993) training enhances the meta-cognitive knowledge base of readers and results in improved reading performance.

Another reading strategy is the ability to make informed predictions as the student progresses through the text (Wallace, 2001). By making these predictions, the learner takes an interactive role in the reading process. According to Blanton (1994), making predictions while reading form the basis of literacy, formal learning and academic achievement.

Allotting learners more time to private reading practice

Extra time allotted to reading can be spent in libraries or to other home/private based printed materials that the learners are exposed in their own environment. The notion of private reading practice for improving reading is very important since it enhances the fluency skills taught by the tutors. Some children allocate more time to reading out of the school hours than others. The factor of private extra time for reading is regarded as a great influence on the fluency of readers and a wide exposure to various texts.

Allotting more private time to reading by learners exposes them to a wide variety of literary environment in which they can perfect their art of reading. It has been noted that the slower a pupil reads a given passage, the lower his/her level of understanding; the fast one reads, the higher the levels of conceptualizing. It is worth noting that while teachers have been keen on the need for learners to allot more time to reading texts out of the school hours, it should also be pointed out that most of the recommended textbooks for teaching may not be necessarily captivating for young readers. As such, learners should be encouraged to interact with various reading materials besides the normal school books. They can be given freedom to choose their reading materials with parental guidance.

Visual image based texts

Use of visual image based texts is one effective strategy for slower readers to generate visual images of what is being read (Carver, 1990). For the reader to create mental pictures, he or she must first be in position to able to make out the word. Assuming the reader knows how to identify words, he or she needs concepts to envision the flow of action portrayed on the page.

The concept building techniques apply both to average and the readers who are slower. The slower reader however, gains more from concrete experiences and images than from abstract debate. Parents and teachers should make extra effort not only in guiding the slower reader in visualizing images but also describing the images that occur in his or her own mind as he or she reads a certain passage. This is meant to give the child a concrete sense of what visual imagery implies. Images, physical actions, experimental displays are only a few of the ways that teachers, parents and caregivers can make the key vocabulary take root within the reader’s mind.

There are various other ways or approaches that parents, teachers and caregivers can take to help children with reading difficulties. Medical interventions, counseling are among other approaches that could be taken. These are vital in unpacking some of the hidden, unresolved issues within a child that could be the root cause of the reading difficulties.

References

Blanton, L. (1994). Discourse, artifacts, and the Ozarks: understanding academic literacy. In Zamel, & Spack, pp. 219-235.

Carver, R. P. (1990). Reading rate: a review of research and theory. San Diego, California: Academic Press, Inc.

Devine, J. (1993). The role of metacognition in second language reading and writing. In J. Carson and I. Leki (Eds.), Reading in the Composition Classroom: Second Language Perspectives (pp. 105-127). Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Klaeser, B. M. (1977). Reading improvement: a complete course for increasing speed and comprehension.Chicago: Nelson-Hall Inc., Publishers.

Monda, L. E., et al. (1988). Use the News: Newspapers and LD Students, Journal of Reading, 31(7), 678-79.

Wallace, C. (1992). Reading. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Webb, G.M. (1992). Needless Battles on Dyslexia. Education Week.

By Anthony M. Wanjohi:
Environment and heredity have been considered two key factors that influence learning. Learning environment is critical in sound teaching and learning process. Review of literature shows that Internal and external environment affect learning to a greater extent. Besides environment, heredity/genetic factor has also been found to have some influence on human behaviour. This article briefly discusses these factors and their influence on learning.

Influence of Environment on Learning
The behavior and development of people is mostly affected by the physical environment in which the live. School environment is vital in enhancing learning. A conducive environment of the school compound for instance, helps learners to be able to achieve well in their academic pursuits. The school environment can be viewed as the personality of the school which makes it distinct and unique from others.

A survey by Swedish Work Environment Authority (2005) investigated the environmental impact on effective instruction. The study found out that a good psycho-social school environment is an important prerequisite of learning and of pupil satisfaction in school. The study dealt specifically with environment and its impact on effective learning without looking into the overall components of effective learning.

The physical environment of the classroom also affects the individual children and the group as a whole. The physical environment includes the size of the room, the colors of the walls, the type of flooring, the amount of light, and the number of windows. A physical environment which is secure, appealing and well planned helps children to effectively engage in healthy learning activities. Such an environment can support goals for children and helps them to interact in positive ways, thus reinforcing learning.

Influence of Heredity on Learning
Many aspects of human characteristics such as height and eye color are largely determined by genetics. Learning has also been tied with genetic influence.

In the 17^th and 18^th centuries, philosophers such as René Descartes and Immanuel Kant argued that human cognition was largely reflective of genetically determined predispositions. They maintained that humans are born with certain cognitive inclinations. On the contrary, John Locke compared the human mind to a piece of blank paper without any ideas written on it (tabula rasa), meaning blank slate. He suggested that only from experience do humans draw reason and knowledge. Following these opposed ideas, scholars have continued to explore the influence of heredity on learning.

A study by Frank et al (2007) on how genes influence learning is a source of new insights among scientist on the role of genetics in learning. The study found links to learning behaviors in three separate genes associated with dopamine (a chemical in the brain that is associated with pleasure, learning among other behaviours). The study found genetic differences between slow and fast learners. Such findings among others, have continued to address the issue of genetic influence on learning.

References
Beeler, J.A., Frank, M.J., McDaid, J., Alexander, E., Turkson, S., Sol Bernandez, M., McGehee, D. & Zhuang, X. (2012). A role for dopamine-mediated learning in the pathophysiology and treatment of Parkinson’s Disease. Cell Reports, 2, 1747-1761.

Swedish Work and Environment Authority (2005). Pupil’s Environment in Schools. Available online at http://www.av.se/dokument/statistik/english/Pupils_Environment_in_Schools.pdf.

By Anthony .M. Wanjohi:
Adult education takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. This article explores 4 key methods that can be used to teach adults. These include: Lectures and assignments, demonstration, group work and dialogue.

Lectures and assignments.
Lectures that encourage class participation and questions from adult learners have been found to be among the best methods for teaching adult education, particularly if there are a number of real life examples included in the lectures. Lectures combined with assignments work good for adult learners. Problem solving assignments, for example, as well as papers or assignments that require additional research beyond the scope of the class can help to encourage additional learning and give adults the ability to apply concepts in different situations. In class situation, short-time assignments that can be discussed in a class set up is also a good approach. Discussion develops adult learner’s skills in analyzing situations and thinking critically. Their view points may even differ from those of their teachers.

Demonstrations.
Demonstrations are done in order to provide a mental picture through visual learning tasks. A teacher may use experimentation to demonstrate ideas. A demonstration may be used in the circumstance of proving conclusively a fact. This could be through reasoning or showing evidence. Adults can at times be quite skeptical in teaching and learning process. Thus, teaching with evidence is a powerful tool. If the adults can not only hear but see what is being taught, it is more likely they will believe and fully grasp what is being taught.

Group work.
One of the benefits of group work is increased social integration. Social integration has been shown to have a significant positive effect on retention. Small groups of adult’s learners at the same level of career maturity create a social environment that motivates them to persist in the learning process. Group work allows adults to share and to learn from their very experiences, skills and values. This is an internationally supported tenet of adult education.

Dialogue.
This is a two way approach. It helps adult learners to interpret and incorporate facts into their experiences. In using this approach, it is also important to solicit opposing viewpoints and encourage participation among adult learners. Dialogue can be used in classroom situation or in an Internet forum.

Conclusion.
Teaching adult learners can either be a quite rewarding experience or a very frustrating one depending on the method(s) one uses. Teachers are hoped to benefit from the brief overview of some of the key approaches to teaching adult learners. It is the duty of each to establish the approach that befits a particular group of adult learners. There are however other methods that can still be used to teach adult learners: Scaffolding which involves empowering learners with their own authority. Praxis involving the idea of doing while learning and constructivism approach in which learners gain deep understanding when they act on new information with their present knowledge and resolve any discrepancies which arise. Teaching adult learners should therefore be symbiotic, where both parties benefit from the learning experiences. A teacher in this case is simply an adjudicator in a choir of learners.

By Anthony .M. Wanjohi:
There are a number of factors that affect the participation of girl child in education. The major factors highlighted in this article include but may not be limited to socio-cultural, economic, geographical, health and political factors.

Socia-cultural Factors
A major deterrent to girl child education is a near universal fundamental cultural bias in favor of boy child. The widespread operation of patriarchal systems of social organization, of customary early marriage, of the incidence of early pregnancy (in and out of marriage), of heavier domestic and subsistence duties of females (especially in rural areas), a generally lower regard for the value of female life, all combine to adversely affect the participation of girls and women in formal education. To this list may be added problems of seclusion and security in some areas. The influence of this factor can only be overcome by a profound change of attitude on the part of influential males. This may not happen without grass-root and community based approaches initiated by the very community and supported by significant others like government and NGOs.

Economic Factors
Together with the fundamental socio-cultural bias in favor of males, the economic factor, especially in terms of grinding poverty and hunger, is probably the most influential in adversely affecting female participation in education, especially in rural areas. In such harsh economic circumstances, both direct and hidden costs to a family of sending daughters to school are perceived by parents to be prohibitive in terms of the provision of books, uniforms as well as the loss of vital help at home and on the land. In most cases, the contribution of females is unpaid and they may have little or no experience of the handling of money, which further reduces their status and power, but increases their vulnerability. Because of the patriarchal predominance, investment in a girl’s schooling is wasteful since it benefits the family into which a girl marries rather than her own. In the more privileged classes, investment in the education of females may be an advantage in ‘marrying well’. In such classes, the more educated the girl is, the more bridal prize Mzee (the old man – the father) attracts. Otherwise, the girl child is at times viewed a ‘commodity’ with certain economic value.

Geographical Factor
This relates directly to difficulties of physical access, which adversely affect girls more than boys. Patterns of transportation and migration affect educational provision of girl child. Girl child, being the weaker sex, often fall victim of rough terrain and long distances to and from school. In the end, the ‘endangered girl’ child may not be in position to make it through in school. The final result is either dropping out of school or poor academic performance that can not guarantee a bright tomorrow.

Health Factor
In general, the effect of poverty and malnutrition on the health of school age children falls harder on girls than boys. Boys may get preferential feeding, while girls (who have a heavier domestic work load) are more likely to be undernourished. Even if they get to school, this adversely affects their performance and therefore retention rate.

Political/administrative Factor
Although policies exist in most cases for such developments as universal primary education, equal educational opportunities in terms of gender and the eradication of gender bias from texts and other materials, the political will to carry these through seems to be weak in the face of severe economic constraint in most of African Governments. The role of NGOs in gender mainstreaming has markedly been better. However, there is much more that needs to be done.

Conclusion
The biggest challenge in promoting girl child participation in education in Sub-Sahara Africa is how to change the societal female perception in a male dominated Society. This is possible but may take a long period of time. The initiatives can only succeed if they are driven from within (community level) with external support by government and members of local and international organizations.